In Ostia, Italy, Rome’s Ancient Port

March 21, 2024

Today my tour group visited Ostia Antica, and saw some of the excavations there. Over time, the port silted up, but in antiquity it was of vital importance to Rome. The Lexham Bible Dictionary has the following information:

OSTIA An ancient port of Rome located at the mouth of the Tiber River. A vital strategic and commercial site of the Roman Empire.

Location and Biblical Relevance

Ostia was the nearest port that granted access to Rome for seafaring travelers of the New Testament world. Its name is derived from the Latin term ostium, meaning “doorway” or “entryway.” The name encapsulates the importance of the site, for it served as the maritime gateway to the capital of the Roman Empire.

The city and port of Ostia was located 22 miles (35 km) downstream from Rome at the mouth of the Tiber River. It was associated with sea trade, which brought in wares and cultural goods from throughout the Mediterranean.

Ostia was also an early base for Roman naval activities. In its first centuries, the city was hardly more than a Roman army camp populated by citizen colonists (Salmon, Roman Colonization, 26–27). Ostia was not an excellent harbor; its anchorage was exposed, leaving it vulnerable to storms and pirates. These problems would not be solved until the first and second centuries ad, when the rival port of Portus was constructed.

Brand, S. The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Lexham Press.

As one first enters the archaeological area, there is a statue of Minerva-Victory.

Minerva-Victory Statue. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

The theater was constructed at the directive of Caesar Augustus, and was enlarged by Commodus and restored by Septimius Severus.

Ostia Theater. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

There are some typical masks on site behind the stage area.

Theactrical mask. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

We also saw an altar dedicated to Mars and Venus with the representation of the Tiber river god, the she-wolf and the twins Romulus and Remus.

Altar dedicated to Mars and Venus. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

At the necropolis there are numerous sepulchral buildings, including the Tomb of the Little Arches.

Tomb of the Little Arches. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Click on photos for larger view.

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Posted by Leon Mauldin

Arch of Constantine Inscription

January 4, 2024

In our previous post we saw Roman Emperor Constantine’s Arch, commemorating his victory over his rival Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge.

Arch of Constantine. (Colosseum on the right). Photo by Leon Mauldin.

There is a lengthy official inscription at the top center of the arch, explaining its purpose.

Inscription on Arch of Constantine. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Here is the Latin inscription with the English translation, from Rome, an Oxford Archaeological Guide:

IMP(eratori) CAES(ari) FL(avio) CONSTANTINO MAXIMO
To the emperor Flavius Constantine, the Great, P(io)F(elici) AUGUSTO S(enatus) P(opulus)Q(ue)R(omanus)
pious and fortunate, the Senate and People of Rome, QUOD INSTINCTU DIVINITATIS MENTIS
because by divine inspiration and his own greatness of spirit MAGNITUDINE CUM EXERCITU SUO
with his army TAM DE TYRANNO QUAM DE OMNI EIUS
on both the tyrant and all his FACTIONE UNO TEMPORE IUSTIS
faction at once in rightful REM PUBLICAM ULTUS EST ARMIS
battle he avenged the State, ARCUM TRIUMPHIS INSIGNEM DICAVIT
dedicated this arch as a mark of triumph

Claridge, Amanda. Rome (Oxford Archaeological Guides) (p. 308).

It is very popular to have group photos of tours taken with the arch as the background. Perhaps this will help in some small way to understand its historical significance.

Leave a Comment » | Archaeology, Inscriptions, Italy, photography, Roman Emperors, Roman Empire, Rome, Travel, Uncategorized | Tagged: | Permalink
Posted by Leon Mauldin

Arch of Constantine, Rome

January 2, 2024

The early 4th Century AD was a tumultuous time in the Roman Empire. Diocletin retired in AD 305 and left power to his chosen successors. Maxentius (one of the previous rulers of Diocletian’s Tetracharchy, ruled over the west) declared himself emperor, 306 AD. This was contested by several rivals, igniting a round of civil wars. Constantine (son of Flavious Constantius, d. AD 306, “senior emperor” under Diocletian) emerged as a major contender.

Initially there were several rival claimants to the throne but two primary factions emerged: Constantine vs Mazentius. In AD 312, Constantine and his troops met Maxentius and his army near the Milvian Bridge (located over the Tiber River in northern Rome. Maxentius’s forces were defeated; in the retreat Maxentius fell into the Tiber River and drowned.

Arch of Emperor Constantine in Rome, Italy. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Following the battle, the empire was ruled by Constantine (most of the west), Maximinus Daia (the easternmost provences, and Licinius (the area between).

It was just before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge that Constantine was converted to Christianity. Later in AD 313 Constantine (and Licinius) issued the Edict of Milan, which granted toleration to all religions and restored confiscated property to the Christians church.

The Arch of Constantine was dedicated by the Roman Senate in AD 315. It commorates Constantine’s victory over Maxentius.

Right hand side of the Arch. Shows Battle at Milvaian Bridge in frieze above smaller arch. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Here is a close-up of the battle as depicted on the Arch.

Highlighted area depicts the Battle at the Milvian Bridge. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Professor Gregory Aldrete notes, “The Arch of Constantine is one of the few surviving victory arches at Rome. It marks the first time that such a monument was erected to celebrate a civtory over fellow Romans rather than foreigners.”

Click images for larger view.

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Posted by Leon Mauldin

Emperor Antoninus Pius (r. A.D. 138-161)

August 27, 2019

In going through some of my photos of Athens, Greece, I came across a shot I had taken of a bust of Antoninus Pius.

Antoninus Pius. Reigned A.D. 138-161. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

My priority in the limited writing I’ve done on Roman Emperors has been to deal with those who reigned during A.D. 1st century, i.e., those that intersect with biblical history. For example, click here (“Roman Emperors During the Gospels and Acts) and here (“Emperor Galba: the Year of Four Emperors). But here we offer at least a brief introduction to the life and reign of this 2nd century emperor, Antoninus.

Antoninus Pius was born in A.D. 86 at Lanuvium in Latium. He spent his youth at Lorium, not far from Rome. He married Annia Galeria Faustina. When Lucius Aelius Caesar, Emperor Hadrian’s (r. A.D. 117-138) adoptive son and heir died in January 138, Hadrian then adopted Antoninus, February 25. Antoninus ascended the throne upon Hadrian’s death, July 138.

Michael Grant states that Antoninus’s “deferential attitude” to the Roman senators “prompted them to confer on him the unusual title of ‘Pius’, honouring (sic) his religious and patriotic dutifulness” (The Roman Emperors, 83).

Antoninus Pius. Istanbul Archaeology Museum. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Regarding the land and people of Judea, Grant writes:

There Antoninus Pius soon modified, without completely abandoning, his predecessor’s [Hadrian] veto on circumcision; that is to say he allowed Jews to circumcise their sons but forbade them to admit converts to the rite, thus weakening Jewish competition with the actively proselytizing Christians. Moreover, the ban debarring Jews from entry into Jerusalem was maintained, and indeed enforced by the construction of a ring of military posts round the city (86).

However, Grant’s last statement above is contradicted by Nigel Rodgers, who stated, “Later, Antoninus Pius (reigned AD138-161) quietly revoked his predecessor’s decree and allowed any Jews, who wished to, to return to the now utterly desolate site of Jerusalem” (Roman Empire, 219).

Interestingly, as emperor, Antoninus never left Italy (Rodger, 35); “Antoninus himself never once left Italy throughout the course of his reign” (Grant.86).

At his death, his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius said, “Remember his qualities so that when your last hour comes your conscience may be as clear as his” (Grant, 88).

Gibbons lavished much praise on the period which included the reign of Antoninus:

If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded involuntary respect. The forms of the civil administration were carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. Such princes deserved the honor of restoring the republic, had the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom. (Gibbon, E. (2004). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. (H. H. Milman, Ed.). Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software.

That kind of praise and honor somehow puts me in mind of Proverbs 21:2: “Every way of a man is right in his own eyes, But the LORD weighs the hearts.”

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Posted by Leon Mauldin

The Basilica of Aquileia, Udine Province, Italy

June 10, 2019

Aquileia is located in Friuli-Venezi-Giulia (Udine Province) Italy, and is listed as a UNESCO site. Construction of the Basilica began in the years following AD 313 and continued over the years through the 14-15th centuries.

Basilica of Aquileia. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Inside are 760 square meters of mosaics of what is said to be “the largest Paleo-Christian mosaic of the western world.” These date to the late 4th century AD. The mosaic was covered by other flooring over the centuries, and was not uncovered until the years 1909-1912.

Of the many scenes depicted, I wanted to share this photo of the “Good Shepherd.” The on-site brochure states, “Christ is portrayed as a beardless young man bearing the lost lamb upon his shoulders. In one hand he holds the syrinx (the shepherds’ flute), symbol of the gentleness he takes care of his flock with.”

Christ the Good Shepherd. A scene from the mosaic floor. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

I was also impressed with the baptistery in which immersion took place.

Baptistery at the basilica of Aquileia. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Here is a view inside the baptistery.

A view looking down inside the baptistery. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

I recently posted on the Good Shepherd motif here.

Click images for larger view.

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Posted by Leon Mauldin

He Is Risen

April 20, 2019

As one descends Mt. Carmel going toward Megiddo, there is a rolling stone tomb whose usage dates back to the first century.

Rolling Stone Tomb Near Carmel. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

This tomb was discovered during road construction.  It so well illustrates the biblical texts that narrate the burial of Jesus.  Joseph of Arimathea had a new tomb (one which had not been previously used, John 19:38-42).  Assisted by Nicodemus, Joseph wrapped Jesus’ body in a clean linen cloth, “and laid it in his new tomb which he had hewn out of the rock; and he rolled a large stone against the door of the tomb, and departed” (Mt. 27:59-60). The tomb in our photo was hewn out of the rock, and you can see the large stone positioned to the left of the opening.

On Sunday, the 1st day of the week when Jesus was raised from the dead, the text says this about Peter and “the other disciple:”

So they both ran together, and the other disciple outran Peter and came to the tomb first. And he, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen cloths lying there; yet he did not go in. Then Simon Peter came, following him, and went into the tomb; and he saw the linen cloths lying there, and the handkerchief that had been around His head, not lying with the linen cloths, but folded together in a place by itself. Then the other disciple, who came to the tomb first, went in also; and he saw and believed. (John 20:4-8).

Note the record says the disciple stooped down to look in.  The tomb in our photo shows how this would of necessity be true.

Rolling Stone Tomb. Stooping to Look Inside. Photo by Ferrell Jenkins.

Note that we are not suggesting that this is the tomb in which Jesus was buried; it does however illustrate the type of tomb that would have been used.

For New Testament Christians, each first day of the week is significant.  Christians assemble in the name of Jesus Christ to partake of His memorial feast, the Lord’s Supper.  That Supper points back to His death, His body and His blood.  But we serve a risen Savior!  We proclaim His death till He comes (1 Cor. 11:26).

(Note: this is a re-post from April 4, 2010).

3 Comments | Archaeology, Bible History and Geography, Carmel, Israel, New Testament, photography, Roman Empire, tombs, Travel | Tagged: , | Permalink
Posted by Leon Mauldin

Gamla in the Galilee

October 23, 2018

Gamla was a Jewish village in the time of Jesus, though not mentioned in the Bible. It was located on the eastern side of the Sea of Galilee, in the southern Golan Heights. Archaeologists have determined that the date of occupation of this settlement goes back to the Early Bronze Age, pre-dating Abraham by some centuries. Our photo here shows Gamla at center. In distance, far right you can see the Sea of Galilee.

Gamla, looking west. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Three years before the AD 70 destruction of Jerusalem, Gamla was the site of a grisly battle during the time of the first Jewish Revolt; Gamla fell to the Romans on October 20, AD 67, with Roman forces led by Vespasian (soon to become emperor) and his son Titus (who also succeeded his father as emperor). Josephus gives the number of Jewish casualties at Gamla as totaling 9,000. 4,000 were killed by the Romans, while 5,000 jumped to their death–“while the Romans slew but four thousand, whereas the number of those that had thrown themselves down was found to be five thousand” (Josephus, F., & Whiston, W. (1987). The works of Josephus: complete and unabridged, p. 668).

At center of our photo here you can see the ancient synagogue. Additionally, excavations have uncovered four mikva’ot for the ritual baths.

Synagogue at Gamla. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Gamla was known for its production of olive oil.

Olive press at Gamla. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Danny Syon gives the following information in Biblical Archaeology Review:

To understand the battle at Gamla, we must first understand the topography that provides its breathtaking setting. Gamla is located on the Golan Heights, on a narrow, pointy spur high above the Sea of Galilee. It is enclosed on all sides by steep ravines, except to the east, where it is connected by a slim saddle to the plateau above. Huge boulders on top of the hill make the spur resemble a gigantic reclining camel with a hump, which doubtless led early settlers in about 150 B.C.E. to name the site Gamla—“camel” in Aramaic.

The early houses of these settlers stood on top of the hill, where the inhabitants could easily look to the east—the only direction from which friend or foe would approach. All other directions were well protected by nature.

It was important for the Romans to destroy Gamla because it was the central Zealot stronghold east of the Sea of Galilee. The Zealots were among the most radical of the Jewish groups supporting the revolt. Moreover, since Gamla was near the main road connecting Israel to the great Jewish centers in Babylon, it was the natural entry point for any help the Zealots hoped for from their brethren in Mesopotamia. For this reason, too, it was important for the Romans to destroy Gamla at the outset.

The Jewish revolt was no small matter for Rome. If the Jews could revolt, the allegiance of no province could be counted on. The Romans sent some of their best legions to Palestine to quell the rebellion. Leading the Roman troops were Vespasian and his son Titus, both of whom would later become emperors—in large part on the basis of their victories over the Jews. The Roman legions landed at the seaport of Acco. Vespasian decided that the best way to break the resistance would be to take the rear first—the Galilee and the Golan—and only then to proceed on to the heart of the rebellion—Judea and its capital, Jerusalem. The Romans marched through the Galilee, systematically taking city after city and village after village, continuing on toward Gamla. . .

Gamla is one of very few places in the Roman empire where a battle site was abandoned and never resettled. This enables us to gather unprecedented information on strategy, tactics and troop deployment, of both Roman and Jewish forces. So far over 1,000 basalt ballista stones and 1,600 iron arrowheads have been found, an incredible number in comparison with other sites. The number of arrowheads is especially surprising because after the battle the Romans would have collected spent arrows for reuse. The concentration of ballista stones and arrowheads was especially great in and around the breach in the wall. Clearly an artillery barrage took place here. (BAR 18:01 Jan/Feb 1992)

 

4 Comments | Bible History and Geography, Israel, photography, Roman Empire, Synagogues, Travel | Tagged: , , | Permalink
Posted by Leon Mauldin

Cities of the Decapolis

July 18, 2018

I’m currently presenting a visualized survey of the Bible, with tonight’s lesson dealing with the Life of Christ. Following Jesus’ Galilean Ministry, He pursued a plan to invest more time alone with the Apostles, preparing them for the great work they were to do. This period is known as the Retirement Ministry, “retiring” from the crowds to be with the apostles. One region Jesus traveled during this time was the Decapolis. “Again He went out from the region of Tyre, and came through Sidon to the Sea of Galilee, within the region of Decapolis” (Mark 7:31). This largely Gentile area was comprised of ten cities (hence the name) which were given autonomy by Rome.

One of the cities of the Decapolis was Jerash (Gerasa).

Hadrian Gate at entrance to Jerash, one of the cities of the Decapolis. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Here is a view down the Cardo of Jerash.

Cardo at Jerash. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Another city of the Decapolis was Hippos. From here you can see the Sea of Galilee.

Hippos of the Decapolis. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

We’ve previously written here on Hippos.

Back to our text of Mark 7:31. Here was the site of one of Jesus’ many miracles, which gave proof of His deity:

Again He went out from the region of Tyre, and came through Sidon to the Sea of Galilee, within the region of Decapolis. 32 They brought to Him one who was deaf and spoke with difficulty, and they implored Him to lay His hand on him. 33 Jesus took him aside from the crowd, by himself, and put His fingers into his ears, and after spitting, He touched his tongue with the saliva; 34 and looking up to heaven with a deep sigh, He said to him, “Ephphatha!” that is, “Be opened!” 35 And his ears were opened, and the impediment of his tongue was removed, and he began speaking plainly. 36 And He gave them orders not to tell anyone; but the more He ordered them, the more widely they continued to proclaim it. 37 They were utterly astonished, saying, “He has done all things well; He makes even the deaf to hear and the mute to speak.” (Mark 7:31-37).

Click images for larger view.

5 Comments | Bible History and Geography, Bible Study, City Gates, Decapolis, Israel, Jordan, New Testament, photography, Roman Empire, Theme of the Bible, Travel | Tagged: , | Permalink
Posted by Leon Mauldin

Paul’s Military Escort: From Jerusalem to Caesarea via Antipatris

June 20, 2018

Acts 23 records how Claudius Lysias, the Roman commander stationed in Jerusalem, upon learning of a Jewish plot to kill his prisoner, the Apostle Paul, provided for a military escort to Caesarea, the Capital. “And he called to him two of the centurions and said, ‘Get two hundred soldiers ready by the third hour of the night to proceed to Caesarea, with seventy horsemen and two hundred spearmen.’ 24 They were also to provide mounts to put Paul on and bring him safely to Felix the governor” (vv.23-24). These unusual measures were taken because Paul, although a Jew, was also a Roman citizen. It was upon previously learning that fact (Acts 22:25-29), that the Commander provided for Paul’s safe transport to the Governor’s residence, Herod’s Praetorium. Claudius Lysias certainly did not want responsibility for the assassination of a Roman citizen on his watch!

Their route from Jerusalem to Caesarea took them through Antipatris: “So the soldiers, in accordance with their orders, took Paul and brought him by night to Antipatris” (Acts 23:31).

Antipatris, a stopping point on Paul’s escort to Caesarea. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

This past March, Ferrell Jenkins and I saw the RACE Show (Roman Army and Chariot Experience) in the Roman amphitheater at Jerash of the Decapolis (in today’s Jordan). This helps us visualize the Roman soldiers/spearmen that would have accompanied Paul.

Roman soldiers (actors) at Jerash of the Decapolis. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

From there Paul was taken on to Caesarea: “But the next day, leaving the horsemen to go on with him, they returned to the barracks. When these had come to Caesarea and delivered the letter to the governor, they also presented Paul to him” (Acts 23:32-33).

Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast. Ruins of the Palace. Paul was taken here. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

The closing verse of Acts 23 records the Governor’s (Felix) reception of Paul: “‘I will give you a hearing after your accusers arrive also,’ giving orders for him to be kept in Herod’s Praetorium” (v.35). There is on-site at Caesarea some artwork that helps us to visualize the Praetorium.

Artwork showing Herod’s Palace at Caesarea. Photo ©Leon Mauldin.

Click images for larger view.

 

1 Comment | Bible History and Geography, Bible Places, Caesarea Maritima, Israel, Jerusalem, Jordan, New Testament, photography, Roman Empire, Travel | Tagged: , , | Permalink
Posted by Leon Mauldin

Bologna’s Sea-god Neptune, and More

June 9, 2018

As we continued our travels in Italy, we left Florence this morning and made a lunch stop at Bologna where we saw a statue of the Roman Sea-god Neptune at the square.

Portion of city square at Bologna, Italy. Sea-god Neptune is seen at far left center. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

As we traveled north we crossed the Po River. The terrain had changed as we left the hills and saw flat, very fertile, farmland.

Po River. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

We reached our destiny of Trieste by late afternoon. Tomorrow our group is meeting with a congregation made up of Christians, many of whom have ties and connections with the folks on our tour. Gianni Berdine is the local evangelist here in Trieste. Several of us went for a walk after dinner.

Trieste Square. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Trieste is located in the extreme northwest of Italy, on the Adriatic Sea, and borders Slovenia. This is one of the great Piazzas of Italy.

 

2 Comments | Italy, photography, Roman Empire, Travel | Tagged: , , | Permalink
Posted by Leon Mauldin

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